Presbyterianism

Presbyterianism refers to many different Christian churches adhering to the Calvinist theological tradition within Protestantism, and organized according to a characteristic Presbyterian polity. Presbyterian theology typically emphasizes the sovereignty of God, the authority of the Scriptures, and the necessity of grace through faith in Christ.

Presbyterianism originated primarily in Scotland and was confirmed as the means of Church Government in Scotland by the Act of Union in 1707. Most Presbyterians found in England can trace a Scottish connection. The Presbyterian denominations in Scotland hold to the theology of Calvin and his immediate successors, although there is a range of theological views within contemporary Presbyterianism.

Modern Presbyterianism traces its institutional roots back to the Scottish Reformation. Local congregations are governed by Sessions made up of representatives of the congregation, a conciliar approach which is found at other levels of decision-making (Presbytery, Synod and General Assembly). Theoretically, there are no bishops in Presbyterianism; however, some groups in Eastern Europe, and in ecumenical groups, do have bishops. The office of elder is another distinctive mark of Presbyterianism: these are specially ordained non-clergy who take part in local pastoral care and decision-making at all levels. The office of deacon is geared toward the care of members, their families, and the surrounding community. In some congregations active elders and deacons serve a three-year term and then rotate off for at least a year. The offices of pastor, elder, and deacon all commence with ordination; once a person is ordained, he or she holds that title for the rest of his or her life. An individual may serve as both an elder and a deacon.

The roots of Presbyterianism lie in the European Reformation of the 16th century, with the example of John Calvin's Geneva being particularly influential. Most Reformed churches who trace their history back to Scotland are either Presbyterian or Congregationalist in government.

In the twentieth century, some Presbyterians played an important role in the Ecumenical Movement, including the World Council of Churches. Many Presbyterian denominations have found ways of working together with other Reformed denominations and Christians of other traditions, especially in the World Alliance of Reformed Churches. Some Presbyterian churches have entered into unions with other churches, such as Congregationalists, Lutherans, Anglicans, and Methodists.

Contents

History

An Irish version of the Presbyterian burning bush logo, first used in 1583.

Presbyterian denominations derive their name from the Greek word presbýteros (πρεσβύτερος), "elder." (Presbyterian church in Acts 14:23, 20:17, Titus 1:5).

The earliest Christian church consisted of Jews in the first century who had known Jesus Christ and heard his teachings. It gradually grew and spread from the Middle East to other parts of the world, though not without controversy and hardship among its supporters.

During the 4th century, after more than 300 years of persecution under various Roman emperors, the church became established as a political as well as a spiritual power under the Emperor Constantine. Theological and political disagreements, however, served to widen the rift between members of the eastern (Greek-speaking) and western (Latin-speaking) branches of the church. Eventually the western portions of Europe, came under the religious and political authority of the Roman Catholic Church. Eastern Europe and parts of Asia came under the authority of the Eastern Orthodox Church.

In western Europe, the authority of the Roman Catholic Church remained largely unquestioned until the Renaissance in the 15th century. The invention of the printing press in Germany around 1440 made it possible for common people to have access to printed materials including the Bible. This, in turn, enabled many to discover religious thinkers who had begun to question the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. One such figure, Martin Luther, a German monk and professor, started the movement known as the Protestant Reformation when he posted a list of 95 grievances against the Roman Catholic Church on a church door in Wittenberg, Germany in 1517. Some 20 years later, a French/Swiss theologian, John Calvin, further refined the reformers' new way of thinking about the nature of God and God's relationship with humanity in what came to be known as Reformed theology. John Knox, a Scotsman who studied with Calvin in Geneva, Switzerland, took Calvin's teachings back to Scotland. Other Reformed communities developed in England, Holland and France. The Presbyterian church traces its ancestry back primarily to Scotland and England.

Among the early church fathers, it was noted that the offices of elder and bishop were identical, and weren't differentiated until later, and that plurality of elders was the norm for church government. St. Jerome (347-420) "In Epistle Titus", vol. iv, said, "Elder is identical with bishop; and before the urging of the devil gave rise to factionalism in religion, so much that it was being said among the people, 'I am of Paul, I of Apollos, I of Cephas', the churches were governed by a joint council of elders. After it was... decreed throughout the world that one chosen from among the presbyters should be placed over the others." [1] This observation was also made by Chrysostom (349-407) in "Homilia i, in Phil. i, 1" and Theodoret (393-457) in "Interpret ad. Phil. iii", 445.

Presbyterianism was first described in detail by Martin Bucer of Strasbourg, who believed that the early Christian church implemented presbyterian polity.[2] The first modern implementation was by the Geneva church under the leadership of John Calvin in 1541.[2]

Regions

A detailed breakdown of Presbyterian and Reformed churches by region and country is available at Reformed Online.

Scotland

John Knox (1505–1572), a Scot who had spent time studying under Calvin in Geneva, returned to Scotland and led the Parliament of Scotland to embrace the Reformation in 1560 (see Scottish Reformation Parliament). The Church of Scotland was eventually reformed along Presbyterian lines, to become the national, established Church of Scotland.

The Glorious Revolution of 1688 and the Acts of Union 1707 between Scotland and England guaranteed the Church of Scotland's form of government. However, legislation by the United Kingdom parliament allowing patronage led to splits in the Church, and finally the Disruption of 1843 led to the formation of the Free Church of Scotland. Further splits took place, especially over theological issues, but most Presbyterians in Scotland were reunited by 1929 union of the established Church of Scotland and the United Free Church of Scotland.

The Presbyterian denominations in Scotland today are the Church of Scotland, the Free Church of Scotland, the United Free Church of Scotland, the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing), the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, the Associated Presbyterian Church (Associated Presbyterian Churches), and the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Scotland.

Within Scotland the term Kirk is usually used to refer to a local Presbyterian church. Informally the term 'The Kirk' refers to the Church of Scotland.

England

In England, Presbyterianism was established in secret in 1572. Thomas Cartwright is thought to be the first Presbyterian in England. Cartwright's controversial lectures at Cambridge University condemning the episcopal hierarchy of the Elizabethan Church led to his deprivation of his post by Archbishop John Whitgift and his emigration abroad. In 1647, by an act of the Long Parliament under the control of Puritans, the Church of England permitted Presbyterianism. The re-establishment of the monarchy in 1660 brought the return of Episcopal church government in England (and in Scotland for a short time); but the Presbyterian church in England continued in non-conformity, outside of the established church. By the 19th century many English Presbyterian congregations had become Unitarian in doctrine.

A number of new Presbyterian Churches were founded by Scottish immigrants to England in the 19th century and later. Following the 'Disruption' in 1843 many of those linked to the Church of Scotland eventually joined what became the Presbyterian Church of England in 1876. Some, that is Crown Court (Covent Garden, London), St Andrew's (Stepney, London)) and Swallow Street (London), did not join the English denomination, which is why there are Church of Scotland congregations in England such as those at Crown Court, and St Columba's, Pont Street (Knightsbridge) in London.

In 1972, the Presbyterian Church of England (PCofE) united with the Congregational Church in England and Wales to form the United Reformed Church (URC). Among the congregations the PCofE brought to the URC were Tunley (Lancashire) , Aston Tirrold (Oxfordshire) and John Knox Presbyterian Church, Stepney, London (now part of Stepney Meeting House URC) - these are among the sole survivors today of the English Presbyterian churches of the 17th century. The URC also has a presence in Scotland, mostly of former Congregationalist Churches. Two former Presbyterian congregations, St Columba's, Cambridge (founded in 1879), and St Columba's, Oxford (founded as a chaplaincy by the PCofE and the Church of Scotland in 1908 and as a congregation of the PCofE in 1929), continue as congregations of the URC and university chaplaincies of the Church of Scotland.

In recent years a number of smaller denominations adopting Presbyterian forms of church government have organised in England, including the International Presbyterian Church planted by evangelical theologian Francis Schaeffer of L'Abri Fellowship in the 1970s, and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church in England and Wales founded in the North of England in the late 1980s.

Wales

In Wales Presbyterianism is represented by the Presbyterian Church of Wales, which was originally composed largely of Calvinistic Methodists.

Ireland

Presbyterianism is the second largest Protestant denomination in the island of Ireland (after the Anglican Church of Ireland), and was brought by Scottish plantation settlers to Ulster who had been strongly encouraged to emigrate by James VI of Scotland, later James I of England. An estimated 100,000 Scottish Presbyterians moved to the northern counties of Ireland between 1607 and the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. The Presbytery of Ulster was formed in 1642 separately from the established Anglican Church. Presbyterians, along with Roman Catholics in Ulster and the rest of Ireland, suffered under the discriminatory Penal Laws until they were revoked in the early 19th century. Presbyterianism is represented in Ireland by the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, the Free Presbyterian Church of Ulster, the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland, the Reformed Presbyterian Church of Ireland and the Evangelical Presbyterian Church.

France

Huguenot Cross‎

In France, Presbyterianism is represented by the Eglise Reformée de France, and Presbyterianism is the largest Protestant denomination in France. There are also Lutherans and Evangelicals. In France, people usually say Protestant (which is a common term for all Reformed Christians). The word Calviniste may be used to differentiate from Lutherans, but the word Presbyterian is not used at all. The logo is a Huguenot Cross (Croix Huguenote) with the burning bush.

North America

Evolution of Presbyterianism in the United States. Courtesy of the Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, PA.

Even before Presbyterianism spread with immigrants abroad from Scotland, there were divisions in the larger Presbyterian family. Some later rejoined only to separate again. In what some interpret as rueful self-reproach, some Presbyterians refer to the divided Presbyterian churches as the "Split P's".

United States

In the United States, because of past or current doctrinal differences, Presbyterian churches often overlap, with congregations of many different Presbyterian groups in any one place. The largest Presbyterian denomination in the United States is the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) (PC(USA)). Other Presbyterian bodies in the United States include the Presbyterian Church in America, the Orthodox Presbyterian Church, the Evangelical Presbyterian Church, the Reformed Presbyterian Church, the Bible Presbyterian Church, the Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church (ARP Synod), the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, the Cumberland Presbyterian Church in America, the Westminster Presbyterian Church in the United States (WPCUS), and the Reformed Presbyterian Church in the United States (RPCUS).

The territory within about a 50-mile (80 km) radius of Charlotte, North Carolina, is historically the greatest concentration of Presbyterianism in the Southern United States, while an almost-identical geographic area around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, contains probably the largest number of Presbyterians in the entire nation.

The PC (USA), beginning with its predecessor bodies, has, in common with other so-called "mainline" Protestant denominations, experienced a significant decline in members in recent years. Some estimates have placed that loss at nearly half in the last forty years.[3]

Canada

In Canada, the largest Presbyterian denomination – and indeed the largest Protestant denomination – was the Presbyterian Church in Canada, formed in 1875 with the merger of four regional groups. In 1925, the United Church of Canada was formed with the Methodist Church, Canada, and the Congregational Union of Canada. A sizable minority of Canadian Presbyterians, primarily in southern Ontario but also throughout the entire nation, withdrew, and reconstituted themselves as a non-concurring continuing Presbyterian body. They regained use of the original name in 1939.

Latin America

Presbyterianism arrived in Latin America in the 19th century. The biggest Presbyterian church is the Presbyterian Church of Brazil (Igreja Presbiteriana do Brasil), which has around 750,000 members. In total, there are more than one million Presbyterian members in all of Latin America. Some Latin Americans in North America are active in the Presbyterian Cursillo Movement.

Brazil

Portuguese navigators discovered Brazil in 1500. The colonization which followed focused upon establishing a metropolitan center to the detriment of the indigenous population, which exceeded four million at the time of discovery. As a result, the indigenous population was dramatically reduced until today it numbers 250,000. At the same time the traffic in slaves from Africa, which stretched over more than 300 years, brought in the black cultural element, which is of utmost importance for anyone who wishes to understand the Brazilian soul in depth.

The churches of the Reformed tradition in Brazil form a contingent of approximately 1.5 million persons in over 3,000 congregations; they represent more than 20 distinct denominations. All claim for themselves the Calvinist tradition but constitute separate bodies, not only for historical reasons but also for reasons of ethnic origin, theology and doctrine, and ecclesiastical polity. Some of these factors have caused deep divisions, turning the churches into distant sisters.

Nevertheless, it must also be recognized that the churches of the Reformed tradition have played an important role in Brazilian Protestantism. The first attempts at planting Reformation churches on Brazilian soil were of Calvinist inspiration. The initial effort was part of the French project to establish an economic and political “bridgehead” in the New World, “Antarctic France,” in 1551, with the added motive of enabling the French government to resolve a social problem by finding a haven for the Huguenots, who were being persecuted for religious reasons. On the orders of John Calvin himself, pastors were incorporated into the project of the Frenchcommander, Villegaignon. On March 10, 1557, the first Protestant worship service was held in Brazil, a Reformed worship service with a Genevan liturgy. Misunderstandings between Villegaignon (a Catholic Templar) and the pastors, however, caused the former to turn against the Calvinists in his group. They were persecuted; some of them were even tortured and killed. The French were expelled by the Portuguese in 1566.

A second Calvinist incursion took place between the years 1624 and 1654, through the initiative of an association of Dutch citizens of Reformed confession who sought to settle in Brazil for economic purposes. Churches were established, and attempts were made to evangelize indigenous people and black slaves. As in the previous case, the Dutch were driven out by the Portuguese with the support of the natives in the land. Thus nothing remained of the Reformed church’s activities, except for the impression that invaders were always Protestants and that Protestantism was therefore an enemy of Brazil.

It was not until the 19th century that the Reformed tradition interacted anew with Brazilian society. The new contact took place in the context of the transformations which the Brazilian monarchy began to introduce in 1822, especially with regard to religious liberty and tolerance, fruits of the liberal spirit of the times. In 1855 Robert Kalley, a Scotsman and medical doctor of the Presbyterian tradition, arrived in Rio de Janeiro. In 1858 the first Protestant Church of missionary inspiration, the Igreja Evangélica Fluminense, was founded. This church became the beachhead of the Christian Congregation movement in Brazil, which culminated in the organization of a denomination in 1913.

Another Christian Congregation group was later organized in the south of the country in 1920. The latter group was originally united with the Iglesias Evangélicas Congregacionales de Argentina and was made up of German immigrants and their descendants.

In 1859 Ashbel Green Simonton, the first missionary sent by the Presbyterian church in the United States, arrived in Rio de Janeiro. Young and dynamic, Simonton founded the first Brazilian Presbyterian Church in the city of Rio de Janeiro in 1863. He organized a seminary and founded a Prot newspaper. In the beginning, Simonton received aid and assistance from the Rev. R. Kalley.

Later, the Presbyterian presence in Brazil was strengthened by a number of missionaries from both the Northern and the Southern Presbyterian churches and, by the end of the 19th century, the Presbyterian Church was the strongest Protestant denomination in the country, although Methodist, Anglican, Baptist, and Free churches were already present.

The growth of Presbyterianism was attributed to preaching in the countryside, which contrasted biblical texts with the practices of the Catholic Church to foster strong opposition to Catholicism. Further, the growth of Presbyterianism and Brazilian Protestantism generally paralleled the advance of liberal political ideas.

The final years of the 19th century were years of tension between Brazilian Presbyterian leaders and the missionary establishment. There was a desire for autonomy from the North American mother churches. The unity of the Brazilian independence movement, however, was undermined by the “Masonic question,” with some Brazilians insisting on the incompatibility of the profession of Christian faith and membership in a Masonic Lodge.

In 1903 a group of Brazilian pastors and elders, led by the Rev. Eduardo Carlos Pereira, organized the Independent Presbyterian Church of Brazil under the banners of nationalism, autonomy, and anti-Masonry. It was the first significant division within Brazilian Presbyterianism, which had yet to complete its first 50 years.

A second division, which took place within the Independent Presbyterian Church of Brazil and which came to be known as the “doctrinal question,” gave rise to a third Presbyterian denomination in Brazil: The Conservative Presbyterian Church. Led by the Rev. Bento Ferraz, several pastors and elders maintained a rigid theological stance from 1938 to 1940.

Dissident movements of a Pentecostal nature were a source of tensions in both the Presbyterian Church and the Independent Presbyterian Church. These Pentecostal segments united in 1975 to form the Renewed Presbyterian Church.

There were three more Presbyterian denominations to come out of dissident movements:

(1) The United Presbyterian Church of Brazil, which was born in 1978 under the name of the National Federation of Presbyterian Churches. The United Presbyterian Church was organized by a group of churches and pastoral leaders who were discontent with the internal policies of the Presbyterian Church of Brazil. They called for more freedom of thought and of expression for their theological ideas.

(2) The Fundamentalist Presbyterian Church, which was established under the leadership of a very conservative Presbyterian group in the northern region of Brazil in 1956.

(3) The Traditional Presbyterian Church of Brazil, which began its activities in 1993 in the central region of Brazil.

In addition to the churches so far mentioned, there are a large number of ethnic churches, consisting of immigrants and their descendants. In this category the following churches should be mentioned: The Central Armenian Evangelical Church of São Paulo (1927), The Christian Reformed Church of Brazil (Hungarian, 1932), The Reformed Evangelical Churches in Brazil (Dutch, 1933), The Arabic Evangelical Church of São Paulo (1954), The Swiss Evangelical Church (1958), The Cumberland Presbyterian Church of Bahia (Japanese, 1960), The Central Presbyterian Church of Formosa in Brazil (Taiwanese, 1962), The Korean United Presbyterian Church of São Paulo (1964), The Evangelical Church of São Paulo (Japanese, 1967), The Korean Presbyterian Church of Brazil (1969), The Antioch Presbyterian Church (Korean, 1984), The Reformed Church of Brasolandia (Dutch 1991), The Reformed Church of Brazil (1994), and The Reformed Church of Colombo (1905).

There are encouraging signs on the Reformed horizon in Brazil, in terms of efforts to strengthen the bonds within the Calvinist family. Since 1989 the Independent Presbyterian Church, the United Presbyterian Church, and the Presbyterian Church of Brazil, along with the ethnic Ref churches, have been in dialogue, holding meetings, tightening bonds of friendship, and preparing to take bolder steps such as the setting up of joint projects. Recently in Campinas, in the State of São Paulo (August, 1995), almost all branches of the Reformed tradition in Brazil, except for those of a fundamentalist or Pentecostal type, participated in a consultation sponsored by the Latin American Association of Presbyterian and Reformed Churches (AIPRAL).[4]

Mexico

The National Presbyterian Church of Mexico (INPM) has seven synods and 40 presbyteries. In 1872 the first mission personnel from the Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. (PC(USA)) went to Mexico, and in 1893 personnel from the Presbyterian Church in the U.S. (PCUS) arrived. The turmoil of the Mexican Revolution forced them out in 1913. A few years later a conference with representatives from historic Protestant churches divided Mexico into different mission territories, allotting southern Mexico to the Presbyterians and northern Mexico to the Methodists. The Mexican church was neither consulted nor asked to participate, and even today this action remains inexplicable in the minds of Mexican Christians.

In its centennial celebration in 1972, the INPM asked the U.S. Presbyterian churches for a temporary suspension of relations. By requiring all U.S. missionaries to leave the country the INPM gave itself the space to become a truly national and independent body, one that would set its own agenda and priorities. The priorities it set are evangelism, theological education, and new church development. Relations were re-established in 1980 when the U.S. and Mexican churches developed a new way to do mission together, embodied in a covenant called "A New Relation in Joint Mission." The new relationship commits the churches to make all mission decisions together.

The INPM has seminaries, Bible schools, and women's mission schools in different parts of the country. Although the INPM does not ordain women, many educated and qualified women graduate from seminaries and mission schools. The INPM women's organization is well organized and is a strong presence in the church.

The seven mission sites of the Mexico–U.S. Border Ministry were the first major projects the two churches worked on jointly. These ministries are good examples of mutual mission. Mexican and U.S. mission workers and board members overcome cultural distinctions and theological differences to carry out work together. Many PC(USA) members have taken part in this ministry and have been strengthened in their faith by it.

In Chiapas, the southernmost state in Mexico, 40 percent of Protestants are Presbyterians. During the mid to late 1990s Chiapas was the scene of an armed, indigenous uprising by the Zapatista National Liberation Army (EZLN) and its aftermath. Many Presbyterians were uprooted by the turmoil. The INPM has stood with these brothers and sisters and has advocated for resolution of the injustices in Chiapas.[5]

Africa

Presbyterianism arrived in Africa in the 19th century through the work of Scottish missionaries and founded churches such as St Michael and All Angels Church, Blantyre, Malawi. The church has grown extensively and now has a presence in at least 23 countries in the region.[6] The Presbyterian Church of East Africa, based in Kenya, is particularly strong, with 500 clergy and 4 million members.[7] African presbyterian churches often incorporate diaconal ministries, including social services, emergency relief, and the operation of mission hospitals. A number of partnerships exist between presbyteries in Africa and the PC(USA), including specific connections with Lesotho, Malawi, South Africa, and Ghana. For example, the Lackawanna Presbytery, located in Northeastern Pennsylvania, has a partnership with a presbytery in Ghana. Also, Lebanon Presbyterian Church, located near Pittsburgh, has partnerships with churches in Malawi and Kenya. In addition also there are a number of Presbyterian Churches in north Africa, the most known is the Nile Synod in Egypt and a recently founded synod for Sudan.

Asia

South Korea

In South Korea, a congregation in Oryu-dong, Seoul, Pyungkang Cheil Presbyterian Church is one of the largest Christian churches in South Korea. Another congregation in Seoul, Myungsung Presbyterian Church, claims to be the largest Presbyterian Church in the world. Presbyterians are the largest Protestant denomination in that country. In addition there are many Korean-American Presbyterians in the United States, either with their own church sites or sharing space in pre-existing churches.

Taiwan

In Taiwan, the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan has been an important supporter of the use of Taiwanese languages in services as a consequence of its advocacy of vernacular scriptures and worship services. (Mandarin Chinese has become dominant since the Nationalists fled to the island in 1949.)[1]

In the period since World War II Taiwan has been inundated with every variety of Christian mission. Among the Protestant churches the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan remains very much the largest. The time of its most rapid growth was from 1955 to 1965 when a Ten-Year Double the Church Movement, culminating in the PCT's Centenary, succeeded in doubling both the number of churches and the membership.

From 1978 the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan was engaged in an extensive evangelism effort known as the Ten Plus One Movement, which aimed at a 10% increase in communicant membership each year, so that within the ten year period, church membership would double. Although not reaching its numerical goal, many great advances were made: there was the addition of some 80 churches, 40,000 members and increased lay- training, literature and fellowship. One of its programs was a Bible Reading Movement designed to cover the whole Bible in two years.[8]

India

In the mainly Christian Indian state of Mizoram, the Presbyterian denomination is the largest denomination; it was brought to the region with missionaries from Wales in 1894. Prior to Mizoram, the Welsh Presbyterians (missionaries) started venturing into the north-east of India through the Khasi Hills (presently located within the state of Meghalaya in India) and established Presbyterian churches all over the Khasi Hills from 1840s onwards. Hence there is a strong presence of Prebyterians in Shillong (the present capital of Meghalaya) and the areas adjoining it. The Welsh missionaries built their first church in Cherrapunji (aka Sohra) in 1846. Presbyterians participated in the mergers that resulted in the Church of North India and the Church of South India.

Pakistan

The Presbyterian Church of Pakistan was constituted in 1993. It has a long history rooted in the establishment of the Lahore Church Council of the United Church in Pakistan and the Synod of the United Presbyterian Church of Pakistan. Presbyterian Mission in the area was started in 1854 by the United Presbyterian Church of North America. The first Presbytery was formed in 1859 and the synod of Punjab in 1893, which was declared autonomous in 1961 with the name of United Presbyterian Church of Pakistan. Presbyterian Church of Pakistan belongs to a family of Reformed Churches. The church is organized in sessions (the basic unit which comprises a pastor and a few elders), presbyteries (which consists of at least ten sessions) and the general assembly, which is the highest body and meets annually. General assembly is represented by the 1/4delegates of all the presbyteries. The Presbyteries have the central position in the whole system of the Church. Presbyterian Church consists of 22 Presbyteries. The church consists of the people at large, the total estimated number is more than 300,000. It contains over 300 congregations and 260 pastors. [9]

Oceania

New Zealand

In New Zealand, Presbyterian is the dominant denomination in Otago and Southland due largely to the rich Scottish and to a lesser extent Ulster-Scots heritage in the region. The area around Christchurch, Canterbury, is dominated philosophically by the Anglican (Episcopalian) denomination.

Originally there were two branches of Presbyterianism in New Zealand, the northern Presbyterian church which existed in the North Island and the parts of the South Island north of the Waitaki River, and the Synod of Otago and Southland, founded by Free Church settlers in southern South Island. The two churches merged in 1901, forming what is now the Presbyterian Church of Aotearoa New Zealand.

Australia

Timeline showing the Presbyterian denominations in Australia over the past 100 years, and the movement of congregations from one to another

In Australia, Presbyterianism is the fourth largest denomination of Christianity, with nearly 600,000 Australians claiming to be Presbyterian in the 2006 Commonwealth Census. Presbyterian churches were founded in each colony, some with links to the Church of Scotland and others to the Free Church, including a number founded by John Dunmore Lang. Some of these bodies merged in the 1860s. In 1901 the churches linked to the Church of Scotland in each state joined together forming the Presbyterian Church of Australia but retaining their state assemblies.

In 1977, two thirds of the Presbyterian Church of Australia, along with the Congregational Union of Australia and the Methodist Church of Australasia, combined to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The majority of the other third did not join due to disagreement with the Uniting Church's liberal views, though a portion remained due to cultural attachment. For example, the Church of St Andrew in Forrest, Canberra A.C.T. remains Presbyterian and supports the ordination of women ministers and women elders. The current Senior Minister is the Reverend Joy Bartholomew, supported by her junior minister, Reverend Arnold Bartholomew.

Vanuatu

The Presbyterian Church of Vanuatu is the largest denomination in the country, with approximately one-third of the population of Vanuatu members of the church. The PCV was taken to Vanuatu by missionaries from Scotland. The PCV (Presbyterian Church of Vanuatu) is headed by a moderator with offices in Port Vila. The PCV is particularly strong in in the provinces of Tafea, Shefa, and Malampa. The Province of Sanma is mainly Presbyterian with a strong Roman Catholic minority in the Francophone areas of the province. There are some Presbyterian people, but no organised Presbyterian churches in Penama and Torba, both of which are traditionally Anglican. Vanuatu is the only country in the South Pacific with a significant Presbyterian heritage and membership. The PCV is a founding member of the Vanuatu Christian Council (VCC). The PCV runs many primary schools and Onesua secondary school. Although the church has lost members to American fundamentalists, the church is still strong, especially in the rural villages.

Characteristics

Presbyterians distinguish themselves from other denominations by doctrine, institutional organization (or "church order") and worship; often using a "Book of Order" to regulate common practice and order. The origins of the Presbyterian churches were in Calvinism, which is no longer emphasized in some contemporary branches. Many branches of Presbyterianism are remnants of previous splits from larger groups. Some of the splits have been due to doctrinal controversy, while some have been caused by disagreement concerning the degree to which those ordained to church office should be required to agree with the Westminster Confession of Faith, which historically serves as an important confessional document - second only to the Bible, yet directing particularities in the standardization and translation of the Bible - in Presbyterian churches.

Presbyterians place great importance upon education and life-long learning. Continuous study of the scriptures, theological writings, and understanding and interpretation of church doctrine are embodied in several statements of faith and catechisms formally adopted by various branches of the church [often referred to as 'subordinate standards'; see Doctrine (below)]. It is generally considered that the point of such learning is to enable one to put one's faith into practice; some Presbyterians generally exhibit their faith in action as well as words, by generosity, hospitality, and the constant pursuit of social justice and reform, as well as proclaiming the gospel of Christ.

Governance

Main article: Presbyterian church governance

Presbyterian government is by councils (known as courts) of elders. Teaching and ruling elders are ordained and convene in the lowest council known as a session or consistory responsible for the discipline, nurture, and mission of the local congregation. Teaching elders (pastors) have responsibility for teaching, worship, and performing sacraments. Pastors are called by individual congregations. A congregation issues a call for the pastor's service, but this call must be ratified by the local presbytery.

Ruling elders are usually laymen (and laywomen in some denominations) who are elected by the congregation and ordained to serve with the teaching elders, assuming responsibility for nurture and leadership of the congregation. Often, especially in larger congregations, the elders delegate the practicalities of buildings, finance, and temporal ministry to the needy in the congregation to a distinct group of officers (sometimes called deacons, which are ordained in some denominations). This group may variously be known as a 'Deacon Board', 'Board of Deacons' 'Diaconate', or 'Deacons' Court'.

Above the sessions exist presbyteries, which have area responsibilities. These are composed of teaching elders and ruling elders from each of the constituent congregations. The presbytery sends representatives to a broader regional or national assembly, generally known as the General Assembly, although an intermediate level of a synod sometimes exists. This congregation / presbytery / synod / general assembly schema is based on the historical structure of the larger Presbyterian churches, such as the Church of Scotland or the Presbyterian Church (USA); some bodies, such as the Presbyterian Church in America and the Presbyterian Church in Ireland, skip one of the steps between congregation and General Assembly, and usually the step skipped is the Synod. The Church of Scotland has now abolished the Synod.

Presbyterian governance is practised by Presbyterian denominations and also by many other Reformed churches.

Doctrine

Presbyterian Cross

Presbyterianism is historically a confessional tradition. This has two implications. The obvious one is that confessional churches express their faith in the form of "confessions of faith," which have some level of authoritative status. However this is based on a more subtle point: In confessional churches, theology is not solely an individual matter. While individuals are encouraged to understand Scripture, and may challenge the current institutional understanding, theology is carried out by the community as whole. It is this community understanding of theology that is expressed in confessions.[10]

However, there has arisen a spectrum of approaches to "confessionalism." The manner of subscription, or the degree to which the official standards establish the actual doctrine of the church, turns out to be a practical matter. That is, the decisions rendered in ordination and in the courts of the church largely determine what the church means, representing the whole, by its adherence to the doctrinal standard.

Some Presbyterian traditions adopt only the Westminster Confession of Faith as the doctrinal standard to which teaching elders are required to subscribe, in contrast to the Larger and Shorter catechisms, which are approved for use in instruction. Many Presbyterian denominations, especially in North America, have adopted all of the Westminster Standards as their standard of doctrine which is subordinate to the Bible. These documents are Calvinistic in their doctrinal orientation, although some versions of the Confession and the catechisms are more overtly Calvinist than some other, later American revisions. The Presbyterian Church in Canada retains the Westminster Confession of Faith in its original form, while admitting the historical period in which it was written should be understood when it is read.

The Westminster Confession is 'The principal subordinate standard of the Church of Scotland' (Articles Declaratory of the Constitution of the Church of Scotland II), but 'with due regard to liberty of opinion in points which do not enter into the substance of the Faith' (V). This formulation represents many years of struggle over the extent to which the confession reflects the Word of God and the struggle of conscience of those who came to believe it did not fully do so (e.g., William Robertson Smith). Some Presbyterian Churches, such as the Free Church of Scotland, have no such 'conscience clause'. For more detail, see the article of the Church of Scotland.

The Presbyterian Church USA has adopted the Book of Confessions, which reflects the inclusion of other Reformed confessions in addition to the Westminster documents. These other documents include ancient creedal statements, (the Nicene Creed, the Apostles' Creed), 16th century Reformed confessions (the Scots Confession, the Heidelberg Catechism, the Second Helvetic Confession, all of which were written before Calvinism had developed as a particular strand of Reformed doctrine), and 20th century documents (The Theological Declaration of Barmen and the Confession of 1967).

The Presbyterian Church in Canada developed the confessional document Living Faith [1984] and retains it as a subordinate standard of the denomination. It is confessional in format, yet like the Westminster Confession, draws attention back to the original text of the Bible.

Presbyterians in Ireland who rejected Calvinism and the Westminster Confessions formed the Non-subscribing Presbyterian Church of Ireland.

Worship

Presbyterian Denominations who trace their heritage to the British Isles usually organise their church services inspired by the principles in the Directory of Public Worship, developed by the Westminster Assembly in the 1640s. This directory documented Reformed worship practices and theology adopted and developed over the preceding century by British Puritans, initially guided by John Calvin and John Knox. It was enacted as law by the Scottish Parliament, and became one of the foundational documents of Presbyterian church legislation elsewhere.

Historically, the driving principle in the development of the standards of Presbyterian worship is the Regulative principle of worship, which specifies that (in worship), what is not commanded is forbidden.[11]

Presbyterians traditionally have held the Worship position that there are only two sacraments:

Over subsequent centuries, many Presbyterian churches modified these prescriptions by introducing non-biblical hymns, instrumental accompaniment and ceremonial vestments in worship. Still, there is not one fixed "Presbyterian" worship style. Although there are set services for the "Lord's Day", one can find a service to be evangelical and even revivalist in tone (especially in some conservative denominations), or strongly liturgical, approximating the practices of Lutheranism or Anglicanism (especially where Scottish tradition is esteemed), or semi-formal, allowing for a balance of hymns, preaching, and congregational participation (favored by probably most American Presbyterians).

Architecture

Early Presbyterians were careful to distinguish between the "church" (a term which designated the members) and the "meeting-house" which was the building in which the church met.[12] Until the late 19th century, very few Presbyterians ever referred to their buildings as "churches." Presbyterians believed that meeting-houses (now called churches) are buildings to support the worship of God. The decor in some instances was austere so as not to detract from worship. Early Presbyterian meeting-houses were extremely plain. No stained glass, no elaborate furnishings, and no images were to be found in the meeting-house. The pulpit, often raised so as only to be accessible by a staircase, was the centerpiece of the building. In the late 19th century a gradual shift began to occur. Prosperous congregations built imposing churches, such as St. Giles' Cathedral in Edinburgh, Fourth Presbyterian in Chicago, Fifth Avenue Presbyterian in New York City, Shadyside Presbyterian Church in Pittsburgh, and many others. Usually a Presbyterian church will not have statues of saints, nor the ornate altar more typical of a Roman Catholic church. In a Presbyterian (Reformed Church) one will not usually find a Crucifix hanging behind the Chancel. However, one may find stained glass windows that depict the crucifixion, behind a chancel.

Main features

Notes

  1. ↑ W.A. Jurgens, "The Faith of the Early Fathers." The Order of St. Benedict, Inc., 1979, pg. 194
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 "Presbyterianism, n." OED Online. Draft revision March 2007. Oxford University Press. Retrieved on February 8, 2008, http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/50187752.
  3. ↑ Layman.org "Big Losses Projected"
  4. ↑ http://www.reformiert-online.net/weltweit/18_eng.php
  5. ↑ http://www.pcusa.org/worldwide/mexico/international.htm
  6. ↑ PC(USA) - Worldwide Ministries - Africa
  7. ↑ PC(USA) - Worldwide Ministries: Kenya
  8. ↑ http://english.pct.org.tw/enWho_int_eva.htm
  9. ↑ http://presbyterianchurchpk.org/introduction.aspx
  10. ↑ D. G. Hart, "The Lost Soul of American Protestantism." Rowman and Littlefield, 2004
  11. ↑ Westminster Confession of Faith, Chapter XXI, paragraph I
  12. ↑ Quakers still insist upon this distinction

See also

Confession of Faith

Controversies

Churches

Colleges and seminaries

People

Clergy, or theologians:

References

External links